Banks and traders threatened by new international tax plan drawn up by IMF

IMF managing director, Dominique Strauss-Kahn, has revealed that the Fund is constructing plans to create an insurance fund into which banks around the world may be forced to pay, to help “mitigate the risks they are creating”.

The plans echo a recent suggestion by Financial Services Authority chairman Lord Turner that he may consider levying a so-called Tobin tax on financial transactions in order to rid the system of excessive speculation. Although Mr Strauss-Kahn said a simple Tobin tax, which its creator, Nobel laureate James Tobin, proposed should be charged on all foreign exchange transactions, would “not work for many technical reasons”, he said the Fund was now working on alternative models.

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"The financial sector is creating a lot of systemic risks for the global economy... it is fair that such a sector should pay some of its resources to help mitigate the risks they are creating," he said. "Having some money to create a fund for insurance or funding for low-income countries – that we would like to consider."

The news will fuel concerns among banks and investors that they will soon fall victim to a second wave of regulation and charges as the full economic consequences of the financial crisis materialise. And in a sign of the Fund's determination to construct just such a charge, which was raised at last week's G20 summit in Pittsburgh, Mr Strauss-Kahn said he had asked his second-in-command, John Lipsky, to prepare a report about the plans.

Mr Lipsky, himself a former banker, said: "It is right to think about [the costs of a crisis] being borne by the financial sector more broadly."

Although the Fund was unclear about how such a tax would be constructed or how much it would raise, Oxfam policy adviser Max Lawson said a financial transaction tax of 0.005pc on currency transactions would, by way of illustration, raise $30bn (£18.8bn) a year.

Bank of England deputy governor Paul Tucker has mentioned the prospect of a form of insurance whereby banks pay into a fund to help cover the fiscal costs if at some point in the future they or their counterparts have to be bailed out by taxpayers.

A Treasury official said: "We are aware of the debate at the G20 but there are a number of problems with it. In particular, it creates an opportunity for regulatory arbitrage, so it would have to be internationally co-ordinated."

The IMF's plan is just as likely to take the form of higher capital restrictions on banks as it is a direct charge on activity. Opinions differ as to the best use of the proceeds. Some suggest they could be used to create a fund to help low income countries; others say they should be put towards the costs of mitigating climate change; others maintain they should be put in reserve until the time of a future financial crisis.

However, the scheme is likely to cause dismay in the financial sector. Banking experts have warned that such a tax would dramatically reduce the profitability of the sector, undermining its health and therefore the wider economy. THE World Bank is close to running out of money, its president has disclosed.

The financial crisis has seen the Bank lend significantly more than the three-year $100bn programme it committed to last year, meaning its resources could run dry within 12 months.

"By the middle of next year we will face serious constraints," said its president Robert Zoellick, as he launched a campaign to persuade rich nations to pour more money into the Washington-based institution. Speaking at the IMF and World Bank meetings in Istanbul, he said the Bank needed a capital increase of as much as $11.1bn (£6.9bn) to keep functioning.

Home-based business

Home-based businesses are an important sector of the Australian business community, with nearly one million people operating a business at or from home.

If you're running a home-based business, there are a wide range of government requirements that may apply to you. Things to consider when running a small business from home include taxation, employment, council approval and licensing. Helpful links about setting up and running your home-based business

An introduction to the most common types of insurance, including a step-by-step approach to buying insurance and an explanation of the different types

Insurance. We hate it. People have even compared it to the protection racket–you give the company your money and it (hopefully) takes care of you when you need it.

Basically, the purpose of all insurance is to protect yourself or your family against the financial impact of a tragedy. Insurance is not to help you budget moderate-sized expenses, but to protect you against the truly catastrophic.

There are two ways to buy insurance. One way is to go to an agent to whom you explain your situation and trust him/her to suggest the insurance that is right for you. The other is do it on your own. You research the various types of policies available, decide what you need, and then comparison shop among the various companies.

The advantage of going to an agent is that an honest and competent one can review your situation and make suggestions. The advantage of going on your own is that you usually pay less for the same amount of insurance

STEPS FOR BUYING INSURANCE

Use these three steps when buying insurance:

Step One: Do I need this type of insurance at all? Figure out what the type of insurance you are considering covers and decide whether you need it.

Step Two: How much of this type of insurance do I need? Policies vary in how much they cover. Some cover specific dollar amounts. Others cover percent of loss. Some have a deductible. Others exclude certain types of damage. Look at these differences among policies and decide which one is for you.

Step Three: Where will I buy it? If you are working on your own, the web has a host of services to help you comparison shop among companies. Type in "insurance" on most search engines and you will come up with a number of sites. If you are working with an agent, you may be working with a captive agent which means (s)he can only sell you policies form one company or an independent agent which represents several.

When selecting a company, consider also whether the company is both able and willing to pay on claims should you make one.. AM Best and other companies rate the financial solvency of insurance companies. The web comparison shopping services usually include and explain the ratings. You can also ask the company itself or your agent.

Consider also the company's record for trying to refuse to pay claims. Your state insurance commission may have a record of complaints.

When buying any insurance, you will most likely save money if you pay annually or semi-annually. Sometimes buying several types of insurance from the same company will save you money. Often taking steps to make claims more unlikely, such as installing deadbolt locks or taking a safe driving course will lower your premiums.

When shopping for insurance, also look into group policies offered by alumni associations, professional associations, or religious bodies. Usually you can forget about specialized insurance advertised on television with paid endorsers. They usually cover very little.

HEALTH INSURANCE

Don't go without this. Most people have it at work, but if you don't you will really save big by going for a group policy. When comparing policies, consider deductibles and what is or isn't covered. When given a choice, choose one that covers the huge, debilitating conditions over one that is good about routine immunization, but that balks at the larger, more expensive claims.

Health insurance comes in three types, though many policies mix and match traits of the three.

Fee for service, the most expensive, allows you to go to almost any provider and covers almost anything that is medically necessary. You don't have a primary care physician who has to approve visits to specialists.

Preferred provider options (PPO's) allow you to self-refer to any provider in the PPO's list and generally cover a wide variety of services recommenced by those providers. Some PPO's cover other providers, but with a larger co-payment.

Health maintenance organizations (HMO's) are the least costly, but the most restrictive. They assign you (or let you select) a primary care physician. That physician acts as a gatekeeper in that (s)he decides what is medically necessary and when you may see a specialist. Often the HMO itself has to permit certain treatment and can rule against your doctor if it thinks the treatment is too costly.

LIFE INSURANCE

For most people, the purpose of life insurance should be to replace the financial contribution made by a family member.

Life insurance can be pure insurance, which pays only on the death of the insured, or cash value insurance, which also has a savings vehicle. Most people who need life insurance are better off with pure insurance and saving for retirement through other vehicles.

Proceeds from life insurance cover three types of expenses: replacement of the policyholder's income or work, estate taxes, and burial costs. When you consider the amount of insurance to buy, consider the following:

1. Most of the life insurance should be on a family member whose salary is important to the family budget.

2. Consider a relatively small life insurance policy on a stay-at-home parent to cover child care and other expenses.

3. Don't buy life insurance on children. Instead, buy life insurance on other family members for the benefit of children.

4. Consider reducing the amount of life insurance you have as you build more financial assets.

5. Pass on credit life insurance and mortgage life insurance if you can. These plans are restrictive and expensive. Buy more general life insurance instead if you feel a need.

6. Pass on life insurance altogether if you are single and don't have anyone depending on you. At most, get a small policy to spare your family burial expenses.

You should buy about 12 times the amount of money you would need annually to replace what the family member is contributing. For example, if you would need $40,000 a year to replace the death of an employed member, you would need a $480,000 (rounded to $500,000) policy.

AUTO INSURANCE

In most states you are required to have auto insurance and you don't want to be without it.

Basically, you buy auto insurance for two purposes: to insure against liability you have to others and to insure against damage that others do to you or your car.

You need to have liability insurance. How much you need depends on how much you have in assets.

Whether you need insurance to protect your own car depends on your car and how detesting it would be to replace it.

If your car is expensive and if buying another one would wipe you out financially, consider buying comprehensive and collision. If you have an older car and wouldn't get much from the insurance company if it were totaled, don't bother. Instead, put the money you would have paid for comprehensive and collision toward saving for your next car.

HOMEOWNERS' INSURANCE

The purpose of homeowners' insurance is to protect you against damage to your home and property from natural disasters.

Insurance companies offer different ratings of insurance and assign these ratings with codes starting with the letters "HO". While these ratings are fairly standard, they do vary a little with companies, so check with the company to see what policies cover.

When comparing policies, consider differences among deductible, coverage of property other than the house (sheds, garages, etc.), and percent of loss covered. Consider also whether the policy covers resale cost or rebuilding cost. Rebuilding usually provides better coverage, but is more expensive.

Basic homeowner's insurance does not cover the contents, though you can often add it for an additional fee or buy it separately. When buying contents insurance, consider whether it covers replacement value or fair market value. Replacement value is a better buy because it pays to buy a new piece of furniture or appliance, not what your old one is worth.

Consider also buying liability insurance which covers you if someone sustains an injury or other loss on your property.

Renters and condominium owners need only contents and possibly liability insurance. Many companies have policies tailored to these purposes.

APPLIANCE PROTECTION

Don't buy any extended warranties or protection plans when you buy small or major appliances. These plans are pure profit to the appliance stores. That's why the salespeople, push them so hard, especially if they are on commission. They usually cover only periods when very little is likely to go wrong and have numerous exclusions.

Insurance is a complex subject. Do your own research or work with your agent. Hopefully this introduction will help you do that more effectively.

Types of insurance

Any risk that can be quantified can potentially be insured. Specific kinds of risk that may give rise to claims are known as "perils". An insurance policy will set out in detail which perils are covered by the policy and which are not. Below are (non-exhaustive) lists of the many different types of insurance that exist. A single policy may cover risks in one or more of the categories set out below. For example, auto insurance would typically cover both property risk (covering the risk of theft or damage to the car) and liability risk (covering legal claims from causing an accident). A homeowner's insurance policy in the U.S. typically includes property insurance covering damage to the home and the owner's belongings, liability insurance covering certain legal claims against the owner, and even a small amount of coverage for medical expenses of guests who are injured on the owner's property.

Business insurance can be any kind of insurance that protects businesses against risks. Some principal subtypes of business insurance are (a) the various kinds of professional liability insurance, also called professional indemnity insurance, which are discussed below under that name; and (b) the business owner's policy (BOP), which bundles into one policy many of the kinds of coverage that a business owner needs, in a way analogous to how homeowners insurance bundles the coverages that a homeowner needs.^[10]

[edit]Auto insurance

Main article: Vehicle insurance

A wrecked vehicle

Auto insurance protects you against financial loss if you have an accident. It is a contract between you and the insurance company. You agree to pay the premium and the insurance company agrees to pay your losses as defined in your policy. Auto insurance provides property, liability and medical coverage:

1. Property coverage pays for damage to or theft of your car.
2. Liability coverage pays for your legal responsibility to others for bodily injury or property damage.
3. Medical coverage pays for the cost of treating injuries, rehabilitation and sometimes lost wages and funeral expenses.

An auto insurance policy comprises six kinds of coverage. Most countries require you to buy some, but not all, of these coverages. If you're financing a car, your lender may also have requirements. Most auto policies are for six months to a year.

In the United States, your insurance company should notify you by mail when it’s time to renew the policy and to pay your premium. ^[11]

[edit]Home insurance

Main article: Home insurance

Home insurance provides compensation for damage or destruction of a home from disasters. In some geographical areas, the standard insurances excludes certain types of disasters, such as flood and earthquakes, that require additional coverage. Maintenance-related problems are the homeowners' responsibility. The policy may include inventory, or this can be bought as a separate policy, especially for people who rent housing. In some countries, insurers offer a package which may include liability and legal responsibility for injuries and property damage caused by members of the household, including pets.^[12]

[edit]Health

Main articles: Health insurance and Dental insurance

NHS Facility

Health insurance policies by the National Health Service in the United Kingdom (NHS) or other publicly-funded health programs will cover the cost of medical treatments. Dental insurance, like medical insurance, is coverage for individuals to protect them against dental costs. In the U.S., dental insurance is often part of an employer's benefits package, along with health insurance.

[edit]Accident, Sickness and Unemployment Insurance

• Disability insurance policies provide financial support in the event the policyholder is unable to work because of disabling illness or injury. It provides monthly support to help pay such obligations asmortgages and credit cards.
• Disability overhead insurance allows business owners to cover the overhead expenses of their business while they are unable to work.
• Total permanent disability insurance provides benefits when a person is permanently disabled and can no longer work in their profession, often taken as an adjunct to life insurance.
• Workers' compensation insurance replaces all or part of a worker's wages lost and accompanying medical expenses incurred because of a job-related injury.

[edit]Casualty

Casualty insurance insures against accidents, not necessarily tied to any specific property.

Main article: Casualty insurance

• Crime insurance is a form of casualty insurance that covers the policyholder against losses arising from the criminal acts of third parties. For example, a company can obtain crime insurance to cover losses arising from theft or embezzlement.
• Political risk insurance is a form of casualty insurance that can be taken out by businesses with operations in countries in which there is a risk that revolution or other political conditions will result in a loss.

[edit]Life

Main article: Life insurance

Life insurance provides a monetary benefit to a decedent's family or other designated beneficiary, and may specifically provide for income to an insured person's family, burial, funeral and other final expenses. Life insurance policies often allow the option of having the proceeds paid to the beneficiary either in a lump sum cash payment or an annuity.

Annuities provide a stream of payments and are generally classified as insurance because they are issued by insurance companies and regulated as insurance and require the same kinds of actuarial and investment management expertise that life insurance requires. Annuities and pensions that pay a benefit for life are sometimes regarded as insurance against the possibility that a retiree will outlive his or her financial resources. In that sense, they are the complement of life insurance and, from an underwriting perspective, are the mirror image of life insurance.

Certain life insurance contracts accumulate cash values, which may be taken by the insured if the policy is surrendered or which may be borrowed against. Some policies, such as annuities and endowment policies, are financial instruments to accumulate or liquidate wealth when it is needed.

In many countries, such as the U.S. and the UK, the tax law provides that the interest on this cash value is not taxable under certain circumstances. This leads to widespread use of life insurance as a tax-efficient method of saving as well as protection in the event of early death.

In U.S., the tax on interest income on life insurance policies and annuities is generally deferred. However, in some cases the benefit derived from tax deferral may be offset by a low return. This depends upon the insuring company, the type of policy and other variables (mortality, market return, etc.). Moreover, other income tax saving vehicles (e.g., IRAs, 401(k) plans, Roth IRAs) may be better alternatives for value accumulation.

[edit]Property

Main article: Property insurance

This tornado damage to an Illinoishome would be considered an "Act of God" for insurance purposes

Property insurance provides protection against risks to property, such as fire, theft or weather damage. This includes specialized forms of insurance such as fire insurance, flood insurance, earthquake insurance,home insurance, inland marine insurance or boiler insurance.

• Automobile insurance, known in the UK as motor insurance, is probably the most common form of insurance and may cover both legal liability claims against the driver and loss of or damage to the insured's vehicle itself. Throughout the United States an auto insurance policy is required to legally operate a motor vehicle on public roads. In some jurisdictions, bodily injury compensation for automobile accident victims has been changed to a no-fault system, which reduces or eliminates the ability to sue for compensation but provides automatic eligibility for benefits. Credit card companies insure againstdamage on rented cars.
  • Driving School Insurance insurance provides cover for any authorized driver whilst undergoing tuition, cover also unlike other motor policies provides cover for instructor liability where both the pupil and driving instructor are equally liable in the event of a claim.
• Aviation insurance insures against hull, spares, deductibles, hull wear and liability risks.
• Boiler insurance (also known as boiler and machinery insurance or equipment breakdown insurance) insures against accidental physical damage to equipment or machinery.
• Builder's risk insurance insures against the risk of physical loss or damage to property during construction. Builder's risk insurance is typically written on an "all risk" basis covering damage due to any cause (including the negligence of the insured) not otherwise expressly excluded.
• Crop insurance "Farmers use crop insurance to reduce or manage various risks associated with growing crops. Such risks include crop loss or damage caused by weather, hail, drought, frost damage, insects, or disease, for instance."^[13]
• Earthquake insurance is a form of property insurance that pays the policyholder in the event of an earthquake that causes damage to the property. Most ordinary homeowners insurance policies do not cover earthquake damage. Most earthquake insurance policies feature a highdeductible. Rates depend on location and the probability of an earthquake, as well as the construction of the home.
• A fidelity bond is a form of casualty insurance that covers policyholders for losses that they incur as a result of fraudulent acts by specified individuals. It usually insures a business for losses caused by the dishonest acts of its employees.
• Flood insurance protects against property loss due to flooding. Many insurers in the U.S. do not provide flood insurance in some portions of the country. In response to this, the federal government created the National Flood Insurance Program which serves as the insurer of last resort.
• Home insurance or homeowners' insurance: See "Property insurance".
• Landlord insurance is specifically designed for people who own properties which they rent out. Most house insurance cover in the U.K will not be valid if the property is rented out therefore landlords must take out this specialist form of home insurance.
• Marine insurance and marine cargo insurance cover the loss or damage of ships at sea or on inland waterways, and of the cargo that may be on them. When the owner of the cargo and the carrier are separate corporations, marine cargo insurance typically compensates the owner of cargo for losses sustained from fire, shipwreck, etc., but excludes losses that can be recovered from the carrier or the carrier's insurance. Many marine insurance underwriters will include "time element" coverage in such policies, which extends the indemnity to cover loss of profit and other business expenses attributable to the delay caused by a covered loss.
• Surety bond insurance is a three party insurance guaranteeing the performance of the principal.
• Terrorism insurance provides protection against any loss or damage caused by terrorist activities.
• Volcano insurance is an insurance that covers volcano damage in Hawaii.
• Windstorm insurance is an insurance covering the damage that can be caused by hurricanes and tropical cyclones.

[edit]Liability

Main article: Liability insurance

Liability insurance is a very broad superset that covers legal claims against the insured. Many types of insurance include an aspect of liability coverage. For example, a homeowner's insurance policy will normally include liability coverage which protects the insured in the event of a claim brought by someone who slips and falls on the property; automobile insurance also includes an aspect of liability insurance that indemnifies against the harm that a crashing car can cause to others' lives, health, or property. The protection offered by a liability insurance policy is twofold: a legal defense in the event of a lawsuit commenced against the policyholder and indemnification (payment on behalf of the insured) with respect to a settlement or court verdict. Liability policies typically cover only the negligence of the insured, and will not apply to results of wilful or intentional acts by the insured.

• Public liability insurance covers a business against claims should its operations injure a member of the public or damage their property in some way.
• Directors and officers liability insurance protects an organization (usually a corporation) from costs associated with litigation resulting from mistakes made by directors and officers for which they are liable. In the industry, it is usually called "D&O" for short.
• Environmental liability insurance protects the insured from bodily injury, property damage and cleanup costs as a result of the dispersal, release or escape of pollutants.
• Errors and omissions insurance: See "Professional liability insurance" under "Liability insurance".
• Prize indemnity insurance protects the insured from giving away a large prize at a specific event. Examples would include offering prizes to contestants who can make a half-court shot at a basketball game, or a hole-in-one at a golf tournament.
• Professional liability insurance, also called professional indemnity insurance, protects insured professionals such as architectural corporation and medical practice against potential negligence claims made by their patients/clients. Professional liability insurance may take on different names depending on the profession. For example, professional liability insurance in reference to the medical profession may be called malpractice insurance. Notaries public may take out errors and omissions insurance (E&O). Other potential E&O policyholders include, for example, real estate brokers, Insurance agents, home inspectors, appraisers, and website developers.

[edit]Credit

Main article: Credit insurance

Credit insurance repays some or all of a loan when certain things happen to the borrower such as unemployment, disability, or death.

• Mortgage insurance insures the lender against default by the borrower. Mortgage insurance is a form of credit insurance, although the namecredit insurance more often is used to refer to policies that cover other kinds of debt.
• Many credit cards offer payment protection plans which are a form of credit insurance.

[edit]Other types

• Collateral protection insurance or CPI, insures property (primarily vehicles) held as collateral for loans made by lending institutions.
• Defense Base Act Workers' compensation or DBA Insurance provides coverage for civilian workers hired by the government to perform contracts outside the U.S. and Canada. DBA is required for all U.S. citizens, U.S. residents, U.S. Green Card holders, and all employees or subcontractors hired on overseas government contracts. Depending on the country, Foreign Nationals must also be covered under DBA. This coverage typically includes expenses related to medical treatment and loss of wages, as well as disability and death benefits.
• Expatriate insurance provides individuals and organizations operating outside of their home country with protection for automobiles, property, health, liability and business pursuits.
• Financial loss insurance or Business Interruption Insurance protects individuals and companies against various financial risks. For example, a business might purchase coverage to protect it from loss of sales if a fire in a factory prevented it from carrying out its business for a time. Insurance might also cover the failure of a creditor to pay money it owes to the insured. This type of insurance is frequently referred to as "business interruption insurance." Fidelity bonds and surety bonds are included in this category, although these products provide a benefit to a third party (the "obligee") in the event the insured party (usually referred to as the "obligor") fails to perform its obligations under a contract with the obligee.
• Kidnap and ransom insurance
• Locked funds insurance is a little-known hybrid insurance policy jointly issued by governments and banks. It is used to protect public funds from tamper by unauthorized parties. In special cases, a government may authorize its use in protecting semi-private funds which are liable to tamper. The terms of this type of insurance are usually very strict. Therefore it is used only in extreme cases where maximum security of funds is required.
• Nuclear incident insurance covers damages resulting from an incident involving radioactive materials and is generally arranged at the national level. See the Nuclear exclusion clause and for the United States the Price-Anderson Nuclear Industries Indemnity Act)
• Pet insurance insures pets against accidents and illnesses - some companies cover routine/wellness care and burial, as well.
• Pollution Insurance which consists of first-party coverage for contamination of insured property either by external or on-site sources. Coverage for liability to third parties arising from contamination of air, water, or land due to the sudden and accidental release of hazardous materials from the insured site. The policy usually covers the costs of cleanup and may include coverage for releases from underground storage tanks. Intentional acts are specifically excluded.
• Purchase insurance is aimed at providing protection on the products people purchase. Purchase insurance can cover individual purchase protection, warranties, guarantees, care plans and even mobile phone insurance. Such insurance is normally very limited in the scope of problems that are covered by the policy.
• Title insurance provides a guarantee that title to real property is vested in the purchaser and/or mortgagee, free and clear of liens or encumbrances. It is usually issued in conjunction with a search of the public records performed at the time of a real estate transaction.
• Travel insurance is an insurance cover taken by those who travel abroad, which covers certain losses such as medical expenses, loss of personal belongings, travel delay, personal liabilities, etc.
• Media Insurance is designed to cover professionals that engage in film, video and TV production.
• Legal Expenses Insurance covers policyholders against the potential costs of legal action against an institution or an individual.

[edit]Insurance financing vehicles

• Fraternal insurance is provided on a cooperative basis by fraternal benefit societies or other social organizations.^[14]
• No-fault insurance is a type of insurance policy (typically automobile insurance) where insureds are indemnified by their own insurer regardless of fault in the incident.
• Protected Self-Insurance is an alternative risk financing mechanism in which an organization retains the mathematically calculated cost of risk within the organization and transfers the catastrophic risk with specific and aggregate limits to an insurer so the maximum total cost of the program is known. A properly designed and underwritten Protected Self-Insurance Program reduces and stabilizes the cost of insurance and provides valuable risk management information.
• Retrospectively Rated Insurance is a method of establishing a premium on large commercial accounts. The final premium is based on the insured's actual loss experience during the policy term, sometimes subject to a minimum and maximum premium, with the final premium determined by a formula. Under this plan, the current year's premium is based partially (or wholly) on the current year's losses, although the premium adjustments may take months or years beyond the current year's expiration date. The rating formula is guaranteed in the insurance contract. Formula: retrospective premium = converted loss + basic premium × tax multiplier. Numerous variations of this formula have been developed and are in use.
• Formal self insurance is the deliberate decision to pay for otherwise insurable losses out of one's own money. This can be done on a formal basis by establishing a separate fund into which funds are deposited on a periodic basis, or by simply forgoing the purchase of available insurance and paying out-of-pocket. Self insurance is usually used to pay for high-frequency, low-severity losses. Such losses, if covered by conventional insurance, mean having to pay a premium that includes loadings for the company's general expenses, cost of putting the policy on the books, acquisition expenses, premium taxes, and contingencies. While this is true for all insurance, for small, frequent losses the transaction costs may exceed the benefit of volatility reduction that insurance otherwise affords.
• Reinsurance is a type of insurance purchased by insurance companies or self-insured employers to protect against unexpected losses.Financial reinsurance is a form of reinsurance that is primarily used for capital management rather than to transfer insurance risk.
• Social insurance can be many things to many people in many countries. But a summary of its essence is that it is a collection of insurance coverages (including components of life insurance, disability income insurance, unemployment insurance, health insurance, and others), plus retirement savings, that requires participation by all citizens. By forcing everyone in society to be a policyholder and pay premiums, it ensures that everyone can become a claimant when or if he/she needs to. Along the way this inevitably becomes related to other concepts such as the justice system and the welfare state. This is a large, complicated topic that engenders tremendous debate, which can be further studied in the following articles (and others):
  • National Insurance
  • Social safety net
  • Social security
  • Social Security debate (United States)
  • Social Security (United States)
  • Social welfare provision
• Stop-loss insurance provides protection against catastrophic or unpredictable losses. It is purchased by organizations who do not want to assume 100% of the liability for losses arising from the plans. Under a stop-loss policy, the insurance company becomes liable for losses that exceed certain limits called deductibles.

[edit]Closed community self-insurance

Some communities prefer to create virtual insurance amongst themselves by other means than contractual risk transfer, which assigns explicit numerical values to risk. A number of religious groups, including the Amish and some Muslim groups, depend on support provided by theircommunities when disasters strike. The risk presented by any given person is assumed collectively by the community who all bear the cost of rebuilding lost property and supporting people whose needs are suddenly greater after a loss of some kind. In supportive communities where others can be trusted to follow community leaders, this tacit form of insurance can work. In this manner the community can even out the extreme differences in insurability that exist among its members. Some further justification is also provided by invoking the moral hazard of explicit insurance contracts.

In the United Kingdom, The Crown (which, for practical purposes, meant the Civil service) did not insure property such as government buildings. If a government building was damaged, the cost of repair would be met from public funds because, in the long run, this was cheaper than paying insurance premiums. Since many UK government buildings have been sold to property companies, and rented back, this arrangement is now less common and may have disappeared altogether.